UNIT 0 — Scientific Foundations / Research Methods (Modules 0.1–0.6)
(These are the research-methods / scientific-attitude words that Myers places in Unit 0.)
Core concepts / definitions
Psychology (scientific definition) — the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Emphasis: testable claims, systematic observation.
Note: the starting definition that motivates the scientific attitude.
Critical thinking — an approach that examines assumptions, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions rather than accepting claims at face value. Example: asking "How was the sample chosen?" before accepting a poll result.
Theory — an integrated set of principles that explains and predicts observed phenomena. Theories are broader than hypotheses and generate testable predictions. Example: social-learning theory explains how behavior can be acquired by observation.
Hypothesis — a testable prediction derived from a theory. It is phrased so it can be falsified by data. Example: "Sleep-deprived students will perform worse on memory tests than well-rested peers."
Falsifiable — a quality of a hypothesis/theory meaning it can be contradicted by evidence. Scientific claims must be falsifiable.
Operational definition — a precise description of how a variable is measured or manipulated in a study (turns abstract concepts into concrete measures). Example: "aggression = number of times participant presses a button to deliver a noise blast."
Replication — repeating an experiment (same or slightly modified) to see if results hold; replication increases confidence in findings.
Research designs & sampling
Population — the full group about which researchers want to draw conclusions.
Sample — subset of the population used in a study.
Random sample — every member of the population has an equal chance to be chosen; reduces sampling bias.
Random assignment — assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance; balances confounding factors across groups.
Sampling bias — when the sample does not accurately reflect the population; threatens generalizability.
Case study — detailed examination of one individual or small group; rich qualitative data but limited generalizability.
Naturalistic observation — observing behavior in its natural environment without interference; useful for describing behavior.
Survey — asking people to report their attitudes/behaviors; efficient but vulnerable to wording effects and self-report bias.
Variables & group types
Independent variable (IV) — the factor the experimenter manipulates.
Dependent variable (DV) — the measured outcome expected to change as a function of the IV.
Confounding variable — an extraneous factor that correlates with both IV and DV and can bias results.
Control group — participants who do not receive the experimental manipulation; baseline for comparison.
Experimental group — participants who receive the treatment/IV.
Correlation & causation
Correlation — a statistical association between two variables (how they co-vary). It does not imply causation by itself.
Correlation coefficient (r) — a number between −1.00 and +1.00 indicating the strength and direction of a linear relationship.
Scatterplot — a graphical depiction of correlation (each dot = one case).
Illusory correlation — perceiving a relationship where none exists.
Regression toward the mean — extreme scores on one measurement tend to be closer to average on subsequent measurement.
Experimental controls & validity
Placebo — an inert substance/treatment used in control groups; tests expectancy effects.
Placebo effect — participants' expectations produce a change in outcome.
Double-blind procedure — both participants and experimenters are blind to condition assignment; reduces expectancy and experimenter bias.
Demand characteristics — cues that make participants guess the study purpose and change behavior.
Statistics & measurement
Descriptive statistics — summarize and describe sample data (mean, median, mode, range, standard deviation).
Mean / median / mode / range / standard deviation — standard measures of central tendency and spread.
Inferential statistics — procedures for drawing conclusions about populations from sample data (e.g., t-tests, ANOVA).
Statistical significance (p-value) — probability that observed results are due to chance; conventionally p < .05 considered statistically significant (but interpret cautiously).
Effect size — the magnitude of an observed effect (important beyond just p-values).
Ethics & research protections
Informed consent — participants are told about the study and agree voluntarily.
Assent — a minor or cognitively limited person's affirmative agreement (in addition to parent/guardian consent).
Confidentiality — safeguarding participant data; identities not revealed.
Debriefing — explaining the study purpose and methods after participation, especially if deception was used.
Institutional Review Board (IRB) — committee that reviews research proposals to protect human subjects.
Peer review — independent experts evaluate a study before publication.
(These Unit 0 terms match the 4th-edition Unit 0 modules and teacher vocab packets used with Myers 4e.)
UNIT 1 — Biological Bases of Behavior (Modules 1.1–1.6 plus sensation & perception pieces often placed in Unit 1)
I grouped biologically focused terms (neuroanatomy, neurophysiology, nervous systems, endocrine system, brain imaging, plus sensation basics Myers covers in Unit 1 modules).
Neurons & neural communication
Neuron — a nerve cell that transmits information via electrical and chemical signals.
Dendrites — branch-like input structures that receive signals from other neurons.
Cell body (soma) — contains nucleus; integrates inputs.
Axon — long fiber that conducts electrical impulses (action potentials) away from the soma.
Myelin sheath — fatty insulation around axons that speeds conduction; produced by glial cells (Schwann cells in PNS, oligodendrocytes in CNS).
Terminal buttons (axon terminals) — release neurotransmitters into the synapse.
Synapse (synaptic gap) — tiny space between one neuron's terminal and the next neuron's dendrite/shaft.
Action potential — brief electrical impulse that travels along an axon when a neuron fires (all-or-none).
Resting potential & threshold — neuron's membrane electrical state at rest and the level of stimulation needed to trigger an action potential.
Neurotransmitters — chemical messengers released into synapse; examples and roles:
Acetylcholine (ACh) — muscle activation, memory (low ACh associated with Alzheimer's).
Dopamine — movement, reward, motivation (excess in some pathways linked to schizophrenia; low linked to Parkinson's).
Serotonin — mood regulation, appetite, sleep (targeted by many antidepressants).
Norepinephrine — arousal, alertness, stress responses.
GABA — main inhibitory neurotransmitter (calming effect).
Glutamate — main excitatory neurotransmitter (learning, memory).
Reuptake — neurotransmitter is reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron to terminate signal (target of SSRIs).
Agonist / antagonist — drugs that increase (agonist) or decrease (antagonist) neurotransmitter action.
Nervous system organization
Central nervous system (CNS) — brain + spinal cord; processes information and issues commands.
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) — all nerves outside CNS; connects CNS to the body.
Somatic nervous system — voluntary control of skeletal muscles.
Autonomic nervous system (ANS) — regulates glands and internal organs (involuntary).
Sympathetic division — mobilizes body for action (fight-or-flight): increases heart rate, dilates pupils, etc.
Parasympathetic division — conserves energy and calms the body (rest-and-digest).
Endocrine system
Hormones — chemical messengers released by glands into blood; slower, longer-lasting effects than neurotransmitters.
Pituitary gland — "master gland" that releases hormones controlling other glands (influenced by hypothalamus).
Adrenal glands — release epinephrine/norepinephrine in stress; regulate metabolism.
Interaction with nervous system — brain and endocrine system coordinate behavior and physiology.
Brain structures & functions
Brainstem — oldest part of brain; includes medulla (heartbeat, breathing), pons (sleep & arousal).
Reticular formation — network important for arousal and attention.
Thalamus — sensory relay station (except smell) to cortex.
Cerebellum — coordinates voluntary movement, balance, procedural memory.
Limbic system — emotion and memory hub:
Amygdala — emotion regulation, especially fear/aggression.
Hippocampus — memory formation (especially episodic and spatial memory).
Hypothalamus — drives (hunger, thirst, temperature, sexual behavior) and links nervous and endocrine systems.
Cerebral cortex — thin layer of neural tissue (folded) responsible for higher mental functions; divided into lobes:
Frontal lobe — planning, judgement, motor control (contains motor cortex, prefrontal cortex for executive functions).
Parietal lobe — sensory integration; contains somatosensory cortex (body sensations).
Occipital lobe — visual processing.
Temporal lobe — auditory processing, language comprehension (Wernicke area) and memory aspects.
Motor cortex / somatosensory cortex — strip-like regions mapping body parts to motor/sensory functions.
Association areas — integrate information across modalities; involved in complex thinking.
Corpus callosum — large band of fibers connecting left and right hemispheres; split-brain studies reveal lateralization.
Neural plasticity (neuroplasticity) — brain's ability to change structurally and functionally in response to experience (learning, recovery after injury).
Brain imaging & methods
EEG (electroencephalogram) — records electrical activity via scalp electrodes; good temporal resolution (sleep/states).
CT / CAT scan — structural X-ray slices of the brain.
MRI — high-resolution images of brain structure using magnetic fields.
fMRI — functional MRI measures blood flow (BOLD signal) related to activity; maps active brain areas.
PET scan — uses metabolic markers to show activity; detects regions consuming more glucose.
Lesion studies — infer function by observing deficits after focal brain damage.
Genetics & evolution
Genes / chromosomes / DNA — DNA segments (genes) across chromosomes carry hereditary information.
Genotype / phenotype — genotype = genetic makeup; phenotype = expressed traits (interaction of genes and environment).
Heritability — proportion of variation in a trait attributable to genetic differences within a population (context dependent).
Twin studies / adoption studies — research designs used to partition genetic and environmental contributions.
Natural selection / adaptation / evolutionary psychology — traits that contributed to survival/reproduction are more likely to be passed on; evolutionary psychology studies how natural selection shapes psychological traits.
Sensation & perception (Module overlaps)
Transduction — conversion of stimulus energy (light, sound, chemical) into neural impulses.
Absolute threshold — minimum stimulus intensity detectable 50% of the time.
Difference threshold (just-noticeable difference, JND) — smallest detectable difference between two stimuli.
Signal detection theory — predicts how and when we detect a faint stimulus amid noise; emphasizes decision processes.
Sensory adaptation — diminished sensitivity following prolonged stimulation (e.g., no longer noticing a persistent smell).
Rods & cones — retinal photoreceptors: rods (low light, peripheral), cones (color, detail, fovea).
Feature detectors — cortical neurons sensitive to specific stimulus features (edges, orientations).
Place theory / frequency theory (hearing) — competing explanations for pitch perception (place = where on basilar membrane; frequency = firing rate).
Conductive / sensorineural hearing loss — conductive = mechanical problem in ear; sensorineural = hair cells / auditory nerve damage.
Taste & smell receptors — chemoreceptors for gustation and olfaction; smell pathways are unique because they bypass thalamus to limbic system.
(Unit 1 in the 4th edition covers neurons → brain systems → senses and sleep topics mapped across modules 1.1–1.6.)
UNIT 2 — Cognition (Perception, Thinking, Memory, Language, Intelligence; Modules 2.1–2.6)
Unit 2 covers perception organization, thinking and problem solving, memory systems, language and intelligence. I grouped terms by subtopic for clarity.
Perception & perceptual organization (Module 2.1)
Top-down processing — perception guided by higher-level knowledge, expectations, and prior experiences. Example: reading messy handwriting using context.
Bottom-up processing — perception built from sensory input up to integration in the brain (data-driven).
Perceptual set — mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another (influenced by expectations, context).
Selective attention — focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus (e.g., headphone conversation).
Inattentional blindness — failing to see visible objects when attention is elsewhere (famous "gorilla" video effect).
Change blindness — failing to notice large changes in a scene when attention is not focused on the change.
Depth cues — binocular (retinal disparity, convergence) and monocular (relative size, interposition, linear perspective, texture gradient) cues used to perceive distance.
Gestalt principles — organizational rules for perception: figure-ground, proximity, similarity, continuation, closure (we perceive unified wholes).
Thinking & problem solving (Module 2.2)
Concepts & prototypes — concepts group objects/ideas; prototypes are best examples of a category (e.g., robin as prototype of bird).
Algorithm — step-by-step procedure guaranteed to produce a correct solution (but may be slow).
Heuristic — mental shortcut that speeds problem solving but can lead to errors.
Insight — sudden realization of a problem's solution (contrast with stepwise strategies).
Fixation — inability to view a problem from a fresh perspective; blocks solutions.
Functional fixedness — seeing objects only in terms of their usual functions; can inhibit creative solutions.
Confirmation bias — tendency to seek or interpret information that confirms existing beliefs.
Representative heuristic — judging probability by resemblance to prototype (can ignore base rates).
Availability heuristic — estimating likelihood by how easily examples come to mind (influenced by vividness/media coverage).
Memory (Module 2.3)
Memory stages & processes
Encoding — transforming information into a form that can be stored in memory (types: automatic vs effortful encoding; semantic vs acoustic vs visual encoding).
Storage — maintaining encoded information over time. Models: sensory memory → short-term (working) memory → long-term memory.
Retrieval — reactivating and recalling stored information.
Memory systems & types
Sensory memory — very brief (milliseconds–seconds) record of sensory input.
Short-term memory / working memory — limited capacity (often cited 7 ± 2 items); active processing of information (phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, central executive in Baddeley's model).
Chunking — grouping information into meaningful units to expand short-term capacity.
Long-term memory — relatively permanent store; subdivided into:
Explicit (declarative) memory — conscious facts/events (episodic = personal events; semantic = facts).
Implicit (nondeclarative) memory — unconscious skills and conditioned associations (procedural memory for skills).
Encoding specificity principle — retrieval is improved when the context at encoding matches the context at retrieval (context-dependent memory).
State-dependent memory / mood-congruent memory — recall is better when internal states match between encoding and retrieval.
Forgetting & distortions
Forgetting (decay vs interference) — decay: memory trace fading over time; interference: other information blocks retrieval.
Proactive interference — old info blocks new.
Retroactive interference — new info blocks old.
Retrieval failure — information is stored but inaccessible without proper cues.
Misinformation effect — incorporating misleading info into memory (Loftus research).
Source amnesia (source misattribution) — cannot remember where a memory originated; can lead to false memories.
Serial position effect — superiority of items at beginning (primacy) and end (recency) of lists.
Language (Module 2.4)
Phoneme — smallest distinctive sound unit (e.g., /k/).
Morpheme — smallest language unit that carries meaning (prefixes, words).
Grammar — system of rules: syntax (word order) and semantics (meaning).
Language acquisition device (Chomsky) — theory that humans have an innate capacity for language (nativist perspective); critical period concept for language learning.
Overregularization — applying grammar rules too broadly (children say "runned" instead of "ran").
Thinking about intelligence, testing & measurement (Module 2.5/2.6)
Intelligence (operational definitions vary) — often defined as the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.
Psychometrics — field concerned with the measurement of mental capacities and processes (tests).
IQ (intelligence quotient) — standardized score intended to measure intelligence relative to age norms (historic formula vs modern deviation IQ).
Standardization — process of administering tests to a representative sample to create norms.
Reliability — consistency of a test (test-retest, split-half).
Validity — does the test measure what it claims (content, predictive, construct validity).
Achievement vs aptitude tests — achievement = what you've learned; aptitude = potential ability.
Multiple intelligences (Gardner), Triarchic theory (Sternberg) — alternative models proposing varied facets of intelligence (creative, analytical, practical).
UNIT 0 — Scientific Foundations / Research Methods
Core Concepts
Psychology — the scientific study of behavior and mental processes (what people do and think).
Critical thinking — carefully thinking about claims instead of just believing them.
Theory — a big idea that explains behavior and helps make predictions.
Hypothesis — a testable guess based on a theory.
Falsifiable — a claim that can be proven wrong with evidence.
Operational definition — explains exactly how a variable is measured in a study.
Replication — repeating a study to see if the results stay the same.
Research Designs & Sampling
Population — the entire group being studied.
Sample — part of the population that is actually studied.
Random sample — everyone has an equal chance of being chosen.
Random assignment — participants are randomly placed into groups.
Sampling bias — when the sample does not represent the population well.
Case study — an in-depth study of one person or small group.
Naturalistic observation — watching behavior in a natural setting.
Survey — asking people questions about their thoughts or behaviors.
Variables & Groups
Independent variable (IV) — what the researcher changes.
Dependent variable (DV) — what the researcher measures.
Confounding variable — something else that affects the results.
Control group — group that does not get the treatment.
Experimental group — group that receives the treatment.
Correlation
Correlation — shows a relationship between two variables (not cause).
Correlation coefficient (r) — number showing strength and direction of relationship.
Scatterplot — graph that shows correlations.
Illusory correlation — seeing a relationship that does not exist.
Regression toward the mean — extreme results usually become more average later.
Experimental Controls
Placebo — fake treatment with no real effect.
Placebo effect — change caused by belief, not treatment.
Double-blind procedure — neither participants nor researchers know who is in which group.
Demand characteristics — clues that influence how participants act.
Statistics
Descriptive statistics — numbers that describe data.
Mean / median / mode / range / standard deviation — ways to measure average and spread.
Inferential statistics — decide if results apply to a larger population.
Statistical significance — results are unlikely due to chance.
Effect size — how strong the effect is.
Ethics
Informed consent — participants agree after being informed.
Assent — agreement from minors.
Confidentiality — keeping participant information private.
Debriefing — explaining the study afterward.
IRB — group that protects research participants.
Peer review — experts check research before it is published.
UNIT 1 — Biological Bases of Behavior
Neurons & Communication
Neuron — nerve cell that sends messages.
Dendrites — receive messages.
Cell body (soma) — controls the neuron.
Axon — sends messages away from the cell.
Myelin sheath — speeds up messages.
Terminal buttons — release chemicals.
Synapse — gap between neurons.
Action potential — electrical signal in a neuron.
Resting potential — neuron's state when not firing.
Threshold — level needed to fire.
Neurotransmitters — chemical messengers.
Important Neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine (ACh) — muscle movement, memory.
Dopamine — reward and movement.
Serotonin — mood and sleep.
Norepinephrine — alertness.
GABA — slows brain activity.
Glutamate — learning and memory.
Reuptake — reabsorbing neurotransmitters.
Agonist — increases neurotransmitter action.
Antagonist — blocks neurotransmitter action.
Nervous System
CNS — brain and spinal cord.
PNS — nerves outside the brain and spinal cord.
Somatic system — voluntary movement.
Autonomic system — automatic body functions.
Sympathetic — fight or flight.
Parasympathetic — rest and digest.
Endocrine System
Hormones — chemical messengers in blood.
Pituitary gland — controls other glands.
Adrenal glands — stress response.
Brain-endocrine interaction — both systems work together.
Brain Structures
Brainstem — basic life functions.
Reticular formation — alertness.
Thalamus — sensory relay.
Cerebellum — balance and coordination.
Limbic system — emotions and memory.
Amygdala — fear and aggression.
Hippocampus — memory formation.
Hypothalamus — hunger, sex, temperature.
Cerebral cortex — thinking and awareness.
Frontal lobe — decision making.
Parietal lobe — touch.
Occipital lobe — vision.
Temporal lobe — hearing and language.
Motor cortex — movement.
Somatosensory cortex — body sensations.
Association areas — complex thinking.
Corpus callosum — connects brain halves.
Neuroplasticity — brain's ability to change.
Brain Imaging
EEG — electrical activity.
CT scan — brain structure.
MRI — detailed brain images.
fMRI — active brain areas.
PET scan — brain metabolism.
Lesion studies — damage shows function.
Genetics & Evolution
Genes / DNA / chromosomes — inherited traits.
Genotype — genetic makeup.
Phenotype — expressed traits.
Heritability — genetic influence.
Twin/adoption studies — study genes vs environment.
Natural selection — traits that help survival.
Evolutionary psychology — behavior shaped by evolution.
Sensation
Transduction — energy → neural signals.
Absolute threshold — weakest detectable stimulus.
Difference threshold (JND) — smallest noticeable change.
Signal detection theory — detecting signals in noise.
Sensory adaptation — reduced sensitivity.
Rods — dim light vision.
Cones — color vision.
Feature detectors — detect shapes.
Place theory — pitch by location.
Frequency theory — pitch by firing rate.
Conductive hearing loss — ear problem.
Sensorineural hearing loss — nerve damage.
Taste & smell receptors — chemical senses.
UNIT 2 — Cognition
Perception
Top-down processing — using experience to understand.
Bottom-up processing — building from sensory input.
Perceptual set — expectations affect perception.
Selective attention — focusing on one thing.
Inattentional blindness — missing obvious things.
Change blindness — missing changes.
Depth cues — judge distance.
Gestalt principles — see whole patterns.
Thinking & Problem Solving
Concepts — mental categories.
Prototypes — best examples.
Algorithm — step-by-step solution.
Heuristic — mental shortcut.
Insight — sudden solution.
Fixation — stuck thinking.
Functional fixedness — limited object use.
Confirmation bias — seek confirming info.
Representative heuristic — judge by similarity.
Availability heuristic — judge by memory ease.
Memory
Encoding — getting info in.
Storage — keeping info.
Retrieval — getting info out.
Sensory memory — very brief memory.
Short-term/working memory — active thinking space.
Chunking — grouping info.
Long-term memory — permanent memory.
Explicit memory — facts/events.
Implicit memory — skills.
Encoding specificity — context helps recall.
State-dependent memory — mood affects recall.
Forgetting
Decay — memory fades.
Interference — memories block each other.
Proactive interference — old blocks new.
Retroactive interference — new blocks old.
Retrieval failure — can't access memory.
Misinformation effect — false memories.
Source amnesia — forgetting the source.
Serial position effect — remember first and last best.
Language
Phoneme — sound unit.
Morpheme — meaning unit.
Grammar — language rules.
Language acquisition device — inborn language ability.
Overregularization — grammar mistakes by children.
Intelligence
Intelligence — ability to learn and adapt.
Psychometrics — measuring mental abilities.
IQ — intelligence score.
Standardization — setting norms.
Reliability — consistency.
Validity — accuracy.
Achievement tests — what you know.
Aptitude tests — potential.
Multiple intelligences — different abilities.
Triarchic theory — analytical, creative, practical.
UNIT 0 — Scientific Foundations / Research Methods
Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes, meaning what people do and what they think.
Critical thinking means carefully questioning information instead of believing it right away.
A theory is a big idea that explains behavior and helps scientists make predictions.
A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction that comes from a theory.
Something is falsifiable if it can be proven wrong using evidence.
An operational definition clearly explains how a variable is measured in a study.
Replication means repeating a study to see if the results are consistent.
A population is the entire group a researcher wants to study.
A sample is a smaller group taken from the population.
A random sample gives everyone an equal chance of being chosen.
Random assignment places participants into groups by chance.
Sampling bias happens when the sample does not represent the population well.
A case study closely examines one person or a small group.
Naturalistic observation means watching behavior in a natural environment.
A survey collects information by asking people questions.
The independent variable (IV) is what the researcher changes.
The dependent variable (DV) is what the researcher measures.
A confounding variable is an extra factor that affects the results.
A control group does not receive the treatment.
An experimental group receives the treatment.
A correlation shows a relationship between two variables but does not prove cause and effect.
A correlation coefficient (r) shows how strong and in what direction the relationship is.
A scatterplot is a graph that displays correlations.
An illusory correlation happens when people believe two things are related when they are not.
Regression toward the mean means extreme results usually become more average over time.
A placebo is a fake treatment used for comparison.
The placebo effect happens when beliefs cause change.
A double-blind procedure means neither participants nor researchers know who gets the treatment.
Demand characteristics are clues that change how participants behave.
Descriptive statistics describe data using numbers.
The mean, median, mode, range, and standard deviation describe averages and spread.
Inferential statistics decide whether results apply to a larger group.
Statistical significance means results are unlikely due to chance.
Effect size shows how strong the results are.
Informed consent means participants agree after being informed.
Assent is agreement from minors.
Confidentiality means keeping information private.
Debriefing explains the study after it ends.
An IRB protects research participants.
Peer review means experts review research before publication.
UNIT 1 — Biological Bases of Behavior
A neuron is a nerve cell that sends information.
Dendrites receive messages from other neurons.
The cell body (soma) controls the neuron.
An axon sends messages away from the cell.
The myelin sheath speeds up message travel.
Terminal buttons release chemical messengers.
A synapse is the gap between neurons.
An action potential is an electrical signal.
The resting potential is the neuron's state when not firing.
The threshold is the level needed to fire.
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers in the brain.
Acetylcholine (ACh) helps with muscle movement and memory.
Dopamine affects reward and movement.
Serotonin controls mood and sleep.
Norepinephrine affects alertness.
GABA slows brain activity.
Glutamate helps with learning and memory.
Reuptake is when neurotransmitters are reabsorbed.
An agonist increases neurotransmitter activity.
An antagonist blocks neurotransmitter activity.
The central nervous system (CNS) includes the brain and spinal cord.
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) includes all other nerves.
The somatic system controls voluntary movement.
The autonomic system controls automatic functions.
The sympathetic system prepares the body for action.
The parasympathetic system calms the body.
Hormones are chemical messengers in the bloodstream.
The pituitary gland controls other glands.
The adrenal glands help the body respond to stress.
The brain and endocrine system work together to control behavior.
The brainstem controls basic life functions.
The reticular formation helps with alertness.
The thalamus directs sensory information.
The cerebellum controls balance and coordination.
The limbic system manages emotions and memory.
The amygdala controls fear and aggression.
The hippocampus forms memories.
The hypothalamus regulates hunger, sex, and body temperature.
The cerebral cortex handles thinking and awareness.
The frontal lobe controls decision making.
The parietal lobe processes touch.
The occipital lobe processes vision.
The temporal lobe handles hearing and language.
The motor cortex controls movement.
The somatosensory cortex senses the body.
Association areas handle complex thinking.
The corpus callosum connects the brain's halves.
Neuroplasticity is the brain's ability to change.
An EEG records brain electrical activity.
A CT scan shows brain structure.
An MRI produces detailed brain images.
An fMRI shows active brain areas.
A PET scan shows brain metabolism.
Lesion studies show how damage affects function.
Genes, DNA, and chromosomes carry inherited traits.
A genotype is genetic makeup.
A phenotype is expressed traits.
Heritability measures genetic influence.
Twin and adoption studies compare genes and environment.
Natural selection favors survival traits.
Evolutionary psychology explains behavior through evolution.
Transduction changes energy into neural signals.
The absolute threshold is the weakest detectable stimulus.
The difference threshold (JND) is the smallest detectable change.
Signal detection theory explains noticing signals in noise.
Sensory adaptation is reduced sensitivity over time.
Rods help see in dim light.
Cones help see color.
Feature detectors recognize shapes.
Place theory explains pitch by location.
Frequency theory explains pitch by firing rate.
Conductive hearing loss involves the ear.
Sensorineural hearing loss involves nerve damage.
Taste and smell receptors detect chemicals.
UNIT 2 — Cognition
Top-down processing uses experience to interpret information.
Bottom-up processing builds perception from sensory input.
A perceptual set is a mental expectation.
Selective attention focuses awareness.
Inattentional blindness means missing obvious things.
Change blindness means missing changes.
Depth cues help judge distance.
Gestalt principles help us see whole patterns.
Concepts are mental categories.
Prototypes are best examples.
An algorithm is a step-by-step solution.
A heuristic is a quick mental shortcut.
Insight is a sudden solution.
Fixation is being stuck.
Functional fixedness limits object use.
Confirmation bias favors confirming beliefs.
The representative heuristic judges by similarity.
The availability heuristic judges by memory ease.
Encoding puts information into memory.
Storage keeps information.
Retrieval gets information out.
Sensory memory lasts briefly.
Working memory holds active thoughts.
Chunking groups information.
Long-term memory stores information permanently.
Explicit memory stores facts and events.
Implicit memory stores skills.
Encoding specificity means context helps recall.
State-dependent memory depends on mood.
Decay means memory fades.
Interference blocks memory.
Proactive interference is old blocking new.
Retroactive interference is new blocking old.
Retrieval failure means information can't be accessed.
The misinformation effect creates false memories.
Source amnesia forgets the source.
The serial position effect remembers first and last items best.
A phoneme is a sound unit.
A morpheme is a meaning unit.
Grammar is language rules.
The language acquisition device is an inborn ability.
Overregularization is grammar mistakes in children.
Intelligence is the ability to learn and adapt.
Psychometrics measures mental abilities.
IQ is an intelligence score.
Standardization sets norms.
Reliability means consistency.
Validity means accuracy.
Achievement tests measure knowledge.
Aptitude tests measure potential.
Multiple intelligences describe different abilities.
The triarchic theory includes analytical, creative, and practical intelligence.
UNIT 0 — Scientific Foundations / Research Methods (Modules 0.1–0.6)
Core Concepts
Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. It focuses on ideas that can be tested using careful observation and evidence.
Critical thinking means questioning information instead of accepting it immediately. Psychologists use it to check how data was collected and whether conclusions make sense.
A theory is a broad explanation that organizes facts and predicts future outcomes. Theories guide research and lead scientists to form hypotheses.
A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction based on a theory. It must be written in a way that allows it to be proven wrong.
Falsifiable means a claim can be tested and possibly shown to be false. If an idea cannot be disproven, it is not scientific.
An operational definition clearly explains how a variable is measured in a study. This makes abstract ideas concrete and measurable.
Replication is repeating a study to see if the results occur again. Repeated findings increase trust in scientific conclusions.
Research Designs & Sampling
A population is the entire group researchers want to study. Conclusions are meant to apply to this group.
A sample is a smaller group taken from the population. Researchers collect data from the sample to represent the population.
A random sample gives everyone in the population an equal chance of being chosen. This helps reduce bias and improve accuracy.
Random assignment places participants into groups by chance. It helps ensure groups are similar at the start of an experiment.
Sampling bias occurs when a sample does not represent the population well. This makes results less generalizable.
A case study closely examines one individual or small group. It provides detailed information but cannot be applied broadly.
Naturalistic observation involves watching behavior in a real-world setting. Researchers do not interfere with behavior.
A survey asks people questions about their thoughts or behaviors. Surveys are efficient but can be affected by wording and honesty.
Variables & Groups
The independent variable (IV) is what the researcher changes. It is the cause being tested.
The dependent variable (DV) is what the researcher measures. It shows the effect of the independent variable.
A confounding variable is an extra factor that affects results. It makes it hard to know what actually caused the outcome.
A control group does not receive the treatment. It provides a comparison point.
An experimental group receives the treatment or independent variable. Researchers compare it to the control group.
Correlation & Causation
Correlation shows a relationship between two variables. It does not prove that one causes the other.
The correlation coefficient (r) shows how strong and in what direction a relationship is. Values range from −1.00 to +1.00.
A scatterplot visually displays the relationship between two variables. Each dot represents one data point.
An illusory correlation happens when people think two things are related when they are not. This often happens with stereotypes.
Regression toward the mean means extreme scores tend to move closer to average over time. This happens naturally, not because of treatment.
Experimental Controls & Statistics
A placebo is a fake treatment with no active effect. It helps test whether expectations influence results.
The placebo effect occurs when beliefs cause real changes. Improvement happens even without real treatment.
A double-blind procedure means neither participants nor researchers know who receives the treatment. This reduces bias.
Demand characteristics are cues that reveal the study's purpose. Participants may change behavior if they notice these cues.
Descriptive statistics summarize data using numbers. They help describe what happened in the study.
The mean, median, mode, range, and standard deviation describe averages and spread. Each gives different information about data.
Inferential statistics help determine whether results apply to a larger population. They show whether findings are meaningful.
Statistical significance means results are unlikely due to chance. A common standard is p < .05.
Effect size measures how strong the results are. It is important even when results are statistically significant.
Ethics
Informed consent means participants agree after learning about the study. Participation must be voluntary.
Assent is agreement from minors or individuals unable to give full consent. A guardian's consent is also required.
Confidentiality protects participant identity and data. Personal information is not shared.
Debriefing explains the true purpose of the study afterward. This is important if deception was used.
An IRB reviews research plans to protect participants. It ensures ethical standards are followed.
Peer review means experts evaluate research before publication. This improves scientific quality.
UNIT 1 — Biological Bases of Behavior
Neurons & Communication
A neuron is a nerve cell that sends information. It communicates using electrical and chemical signals.
Dendrites receive incoming signals from other neurons. They pass information toward the cell body.
The cell body (soma) processes information and keeps the neuron alive. It decides whether the neuron will fire.
An axon carries electrical signals away from the cell body. It sends messages to other neurons or muscles.
The myelin sheath insulates the axon and speeds up signals. Damage to myelin slows communication.
Terminal buttons release neurotransmitters. These chemicals cross the synapse to the next neuron.
A synapse is the gap between neurons. Communication happens here using neurotransmitters.
An action potential is an electrical impulse traveling down the axon. It follows the all-or-none principle.
The resting potential is the neuron's charge when inactive. The threshold is the level needed to fire.
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers. They influence mood, movement, and thinking.
(Each neurotransmitter functions as you listed; students memorize function + disorder link.)
Nervous & Endocrine Systems
The CNS includes the brain and spinal cord. It processes information and controls behavior.
The PNS connects the CNS to the rest of the body. It carries messages in and out.
The somatic system controls voluntary movement. The autonomic system controls automatic functions.
The sympathetic system prepares the body for stress. The parasympathetic system calms it down.
Hormones are chemical messengers in the bloodstream. They act slower but last longer than neurotransmitters.
The pituitary gland controls other glands. It works closely with the hypothalamus.
Brain Structures, Genetics & Sensation
Each brain structure has a specific job (memory, emotion, movement, perception). Damage affects behavior in predictable ways.
Neuroplasticity means the brain can change with learning or injury. This allows recovery and adaptation.
Genes carry inherited traits, but environment also matters. Behavior results from both nature and nurture.
Transduction changes sensory energy into neural signals. This allows the brain to interpret stimuli.
Rods and cones help us see light and color. Damage affects vision differently.
UNIT 2 — Cognition
Perception & Thinking
Top-down processing uses experience to understand information. Bottom-up processing starts with sensory input.
Selective attention focuses awareness. Inattentional blindness happens when attention is elsewhere.
Algorithms guarantee correct answers but are slow. Heuristics are fast but error-prone.
Confirmation bias supports existing beliefs. Heuristics simplify thinking but can mislead.
Memory
Encoding gets information in, storage keeps it, and retrieval gets it out. All three must work for memory.
Working memory holds active information. Chunking increases capacity.
Explicit memory involves facts and events. Implicit memory involves skills and habits.
Interference and misinformation distort memory. Memories are reconstructive, not perfect.
Language & Intelligence
Phonemes are sounds, and morphemes are meaning units. Grammar organizes language.
Children make overregularization errors while learning rules. This shows language development.
Intelligence involves learning and adapting. Different theories explain intelligence in multiple ways.
Reliability means consistency, and validity means accuracy. A test must have both.