Mental representations are internal symbols used to stand in for objects, ideas, or events. There are two main types. Analog representations are mental images that resemble the objects they represent, like picturing your bedroom. Symbolic representations are abstract, such as words or numbers representing concepts, like the word "cat" or the number "3."
A concept is a mental category that groups objects, events, or ideas with shared features. Prototypes are the best or most typical examples of a concept. For example, an apple is a prototypical fruit because it represents the category well.
Problem-solving and decision-making involve different strategies. Insight is a sudden realization of a solution. Trial-and-error involves trying multiple solutions until one works. An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure that guarantees a correct solution. Heuristics are mental shortcuts that save time but can lead to errors. We often use heuristics when time is limited, when information is limited, when decisions are low importance, when there is too much information, or when we want to conserve mental effort.
The availability heuristic occurs when we judge the likelihood of events based on how easily examples come to mind. This can lead to mistakes because what is easy to remember is not always statistically likely. The simulation heuristic involves imagining alternative outcomes, which can influence how we feel about actual events. The representativeness heuristic occurs when we judge someone or something by how well it matches a prototype, often ignoring actual statistics or probabilities. Anchoring and adjustment happens when we rely too heavily on an initial number or piece of information and adjust too little. The framing effect occurs when the way information is presented affects our decisions, such as describing a medical procedure in terms of survival versus mortality.
Several cognitive biases influence how we think. Overconfidence bias occurs when we overestimate the accuracy of our knowledge or predictions. Hindsight bias is when we believe we "knew it all along" after an outcome occurs. Bias to perceive order in random events causes us to see patterns where none exist. Confirmation bias happens when we seek out information that confirms our existing beliefs.
Intelligence can be understood in multiple ways. Charles Spearman proposed a general intelligence, called g, that underlies all mental abilities. Crystallized intelligence is the knowledge and skills gained through experience and education, while fluid intelligence involves problem-solving, reasoning, and the ability to adapt to new situations.
Sternberg's Triarchic Theory divides intelligence into three types. Analytic intelligence involves academic problem-solving and logical reasoning. Creative intelligence is the ability to generate novel ideas. Practical intelligence involves solving real-world problems and is sometimes called "street smarts." Analytic intelligence is most emphasized in formal schooling. Divergent thinking involves generating many possible solutions, while convergent thinking involves finding one correct answer.
Howard Gardner proposed nine types of intelligence, including linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, and existential intelligences. Each person typically excels in one type of intelligence more than the others. Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to understand, manage, and use emotions effectively in oneself and in relationships with others.
Intelligence is measured using age norms and standardized tests. Mental age is the level at which a person performs intellectually. Intelligence quotient, or IQ, is a standardized score comparing an individual's performance to others of the same age. The average IQ is 100. IQ scores are normally distributed, meaning most people score near the average and fewer people score very high or very low. Intelligence is influenced by both genetics and environmental factors such as parenting, education, and socioeconomic conditions.